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.Regulatory TDM Strategies.We considered these regulatoryTDM strategies:mandatory TDM programs: requiring certain employers (oftenbased on size or location) to implement a package of TDMmeasures (such as ride-sharing programs, telecommutingoptions, flexible work hours, and transit subsidies) to reduce thenumber of employees who drive to work during peak hours (seeAppendix B16)driving restrictions: prohibiting certain individuals from drivingat certain times or in certain locations in order to reduce aggre-gate automotive travel (most commonly implemented based onlicense-plate numbers; for example, vehicles with a license plateending with the number 9 might be prohibited from driving 86 Moving Los Angeles: Short-Term Policy Options for Improving Transportationin the downtown area or on the freeways every other Thursdayduring peak hours) (see Appendix B17).Pricing Strategies.We considered these pricing strategies:HOT lanes: allowing SOVs to pay a toll for faster travel in theHOV lane; the toll increases during the peak hours to ensure thatthe HOT lanes remain free-flowing (see Appendix B18)cordon congestion tolls: delineating a heavily congested area (thecordon zone, often a CBD) and charging vehicles a toll for enter-ing or driving in the area during peak hours as a means of reduc-ing automotive traffic in the zone (see Appendix B19)variable curb-parking rates: varying the rate for curb parking bytime and location to ensure that at least a few spaces are alwaysavailable, thereby reducing the additional congestion that occurswhen drivers circle the block looking for underpriced and oftenunavailable curbside parking (see Appendix B20)parking cash-out: providing workers whose employers lease park-ing on their behalf with the option of receiving the cash value ofthe lease in place of the free parking, thereby providing financialmotivation to walk, bike, or take transit instead of driving (seeAppendix B21)local fuel taxes: levying fuel taxes to raise local transportation rev-enue and simultaneously reduce the demand for automotive travel(see Appendix B22).Alternative Transportation StrategiesThe goal of strategies in this category is to make alternative modesof travel, such as transit, biking, and walking, either cheaper or moreattractive.This acts as a complement to the TDM strategies enumer-ated in the preceding section.Whereas TDM strategies provide a push(through incentives, regulations, or pricing) to reduce driving, the strat-egies in this category act as a pull to lure travelers to other modes.44Note that the ride-sharing TDM strategy could also be categorized as an alternativetransportation mode.We elected to group it with other TDM measures because employersoften implement it in concert with other TDM strategies. Short-Term Congestion-Reduction Options 87Alternative transportation improvements offer two key benefits:increasing accessibility among those unable to drive and improvingthe menu of travel options for all travelers.They may prove especiallybeneficial for individuals from lower-income and minority groups, whoare statistically more likely to rely on public transit or other alternativemodes (Pisarksi, 2006).To the extent that alternative transportationimprovements lead to more walking and biking, they can contributeto improved health outcomes among the population (VTPI, 2008c).Such investments can also foster more vibrant and livable communities(VTPI, 2008a).Alternative transportation strategies also face limitations.Themode shares for transit, walking, and biking are all quite low, soeven dramatic gains (e.g., a doubling in the number of cycling trips)would translate to only a small reduction in driving.Moreover, anycongestion-reduction benefits that do occur are subject to the erosiveeffects of triple convergence (Downs, 2004).Alternative transportationimprovements especially for public transit can also be costly, andmany transit operators already face challenging budgetary constraints.Finally, evidence suggests that walking and biking can be more dan-gerous than driving in terms of injuries and fatalities per mile of travel,so careful attention to the safety features of pedestrian and cyclingimprovements is essential (Pucher and Dijkstra, 2000).5 Specific short-term alternative transportation strategies considered include public-transit strategies and nonmotorized travel options.Public-Transit Strategies.We considered the following public-transit strategies:variable transit fares: varying transit fares by time of day andlength of trip to encourage greater transit patronage for shortertrips in the off-peak hours, when available capacity is not fullyutilized (see Appendix B23)5According to Pucher and Dijkstra (2000), the rate of pedestrian fatalities is 36 timeshigher than that of car-occupant fatalities per mile of travel, while the rate of bicycling fatali-ties is 11 times higher than car-occupant fatalities on a per-mile basis
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